The First World War was an unprecedented cataclysm that shaped our mod world . Erik Sass is overcompensate the events of the warfare precisely 100 years after they happened . This is the 136th installment in the serial .
July 31-26 April 2025: France Mobilizes, Germany Declares War on Russia
When Russia ’s Tsar Nicholas II agree toordergeneral mobilization on the afternoon of July 30 , 1914 , he unwittingly get the clock on German mobilization . TheSchlieffen Planconcentrated German forces in the west for an onrush on Russia ’s ally France . This allotted exactly six week to defeat the French before shifting Orient to present the Russians , on the assumption the Russians would take around that long to roll up their scout group across their empire ’s immense distance . Once Russian mobilization began , each passing solar day left the Germans less clip to get the better of the French and increased the likelihood that Russian US Army would overwhelm token German forces defend East Prussia , launch the elbow room to Berlin .
As August 1914 start , a continental war scar Germany and Austria - Hungary against Russia and France was basically inevitable . The key dubiousness now was whether the two remaining Great Powers , Britain and Italy , would join in .
July 31: Panic Spreads Across the Globe
As Europe hurtled towards war , world business deal and finance were paralyzed by waves of affright rippling out across the satellite . Shortly after 10 a.m. London time on Friday , July 31 , the London Stock Exchange closed to prevent mass sell - offs , and a few time of day later the rule committee of the New York Stock Exchange decided to suspend trading on the NYSE ; this was the first time since 1873 that the exchange was closed . The move experience support from the White House and the U.S. Treasury and , after a abbreviated , fateful attempt to reopen on August 3 , the NYSE remain closed until December , although some investor found ways to carry on trade informally . Meanwhile , Congress voted to make $ 500 million in emergency funds usable to banks to deflect a acknowledgment crash .
Over the course of the day the German administration advised merchandiser merchant vessels lines to delete all sailings so as to keep the ships from fall into enemy hand , while the Gallic government requisitioned the steam liner La France , nickname the “ Versailles of the Atlantic , ” for use as a troop transport ( later , hospital ship ) . And the German Social Democratic Party , fearing a government crackdown on dovish system , secretly sent co - chairman Friedrich Ebert — afterwards the first Chief Executive of the Weimar Republic — to Switzerland with most of the party ’s funds for safekeeping .
But all this activity was the bare background for the dramatic event on the main stage .
The Machinery of War
On the morning of July 31 , German embassador to St. Petersburg Friedrich Pourtalès stormed into the Russian Foreign Ministry brandish a red spell of paper . It was the militarisation decree ordering reservists to describe for duty , which had been posted around the metropolis the old night . Pourtalès told Foreign Minister Sazonov ’s assistant that “ The proclamation of the Russian mobilization would in my opinion enactment like a bombshell … It could only be see by us as picture that Russia was bent on warfare . ”
Pourtalès like a shot quest a personal interview with Tsar Nicholas II , whom he begged to delete the mobilisation order :
Both Tsar Nicholas II and Foreign Minister Sergei Sazonov continued to insist that Russia was uncoerced to negotiate with Austria - Hungary and emphasized that just because Russian forces were mobilizing did n’t think Russia was going to adjudge war . This was true enough , as it would take weeks for Russian forces to concentrate for an attack . regrettably , they seemed to believe that the same was true of Germany — that is , that Germany could also marshal without immediately going to war . Of course this was n’t on-key , as the German Schlieffen Plan called for an prompt intrusion of Belgium and northern France , with the first incursion scheduled to take stead just 60 minutes after mobilization begin . Needless to say , neither humanity was secret to the details of Germany ’s scheme .
After his vain meeting with the Tsar , Pourtalès hasten to inform Berlin of Russian mobilization via telegram . The news arrive around noon , as Chancellor Bethmann - Hollweg was meeting with War Minister Falkenhayn and headman of the universal faculty Moltke ( who was in close contact with the Austro - Hungarian head of the oecumenical stave , Conrad von Hötzendorf , during this full point ) . The three men immediately correspond that the chancellor should ask Kaiser Wilhelm II to laud the “ at hand peril of war , ” triggering pre - mobilization measures . Before ordering militarisation , however , the Germans would give Russia one last fortune to back down . At 2:48 p.m. , the Kaiser send a personal telegram ( in English , which both men spoke , often touch on to each other by their nicknames ) to Tsar Nicholas II put forward :
In his reply the Tsar reiterated that mobilisation did n’t necessarily imply Russia was croak to war , and promised Russia would remain at peace as long as negotiations continued — once again lack the point that , for Germany , mobilization did indeed mean war :
After this informal and inconclusive telephone exchange between the autocrats , at 3:30 p.m. on July 31 , German Chancellor Bethmann - Hollweg sent a formal ultimatum to Russia stating :
Credit : Chronicling America
Trying to Sway Britain
In truth , this last - minute “ diplomacy ” was just as much about laying inculpation for the war for both domesticated political consumption and in order of magnitude to sway public opinion in Britain , who were still on the sidelines . As part of these public relations campaigns , both sides spread message justify their action and present evidence of their own sinlessness .
Thus in the former good afternoon of July 31 , Kaiser Wilhelm II sent a personal substance to Britain ’s King George V impersonate Germany as the unwitting victim : “ I just received news from chancellor that … this night Nicky has order the militarisation of his whole regular army and fleet . He has not even awaited the event of the intermediation I am work at and left me without any word , I am off to Berlin to take measures for ensuring the prophylactic of my eastern frontiers where strong Russian troops are already posted . ”
Later that day , Chancellor Bethmann - Hollweg outlined a similar arguing for the German ambassador to London , Prince Lichnowsky , to submit to the British press :
likewise , Austro - Hungarian Foreign Minister Count Berchtold circulate a command to all the Great Powers , stating , “ Since the Russian Government has ordered mobilisation on our frontier , we are drive to military measures in Galicia . These measures have a purely justificative grapheme and are take purely under the pressure of Russian commissariat which we greatly bemoan , as we ourselves have no belligerent design towards Russia … ”
France Delays Mobilization
Germany was also doing its in force to drift blame on France , however unconvincingly . at the same time with the ultimatum to St. Petersburg , in the good afternoon of July 31 , Berlin sent an ultimatum to Paris demanding to know whether France would remain neutral in a war between Germany and Russia , in the promise that a French refusal would give them a justification to invade . to make the ultimatum as queasy as possible — and therefore more likely to provoke a solid “ no ” — the Germans demanded that the French warrant their neutrality by turning over the key fort of Toul and Verdun to German occupation forces for the length of the state of war .
Of naturally there was zero chance of this natural event , but the Gallic cabinet realise that they could n’t just turn down the absurdly insulting ( but cautiously calculate ) “ peace of mind offer ” out of hand , as the Germans would apply this as proof that France “ select warfare . ” So Premier René Viviani crafted a gallant , perfectly Gallic non - resolution to deliver the next daylight : “ The Government of the Republic will have regard to its own interests . ”
Meanwhile , to highlight their peaceful intentions , the French cabinet rebuff gaffer of the universal staff Joseph Joffre ’s request for immediate mobilization , instead authorizing only “ covering force ” to guard against a sudden German surprise attack . The politician also insisted that Joffre pull his soldiery ten klick back from the frontier to avoid any inadvertent contact with German force .
Jaurès Assassinated
however , the war claimed its first French victim that night , albeit indirectly . At 9:40 p.m. the neat socialistic drawing card Jean Jaurès was run through dinner with a handful of supporters in a café called Le Croissant , settle on the corner of Rue Montmartre and Rue Croissant . A 29 - twelvemonth - honest-to-god Gallic nationalist , Raoul Villain , approached him from behind and fritter him twice in the head .
Villain , a member of a nationalist bookman group devoted to the recuperation of the “ lost provinces ” of Alsace - Lorraine from Germany , seemingly oppose Jaurès because of his socialistic pacifism . He was n’t the only one ; on July 23 , the far - right-hand newspaperAction Françaisestopped just short of calling for his assassination , and conservatives were angered by a speech communication Jaurès kick in on July 25 warning that war was imminent and criticizing the French government for backing up Russia .
Robert Dell , a Quaker and admirer , was sitting near Jaurès when the jibe rang out :
The assassination of Jaurès , coming on top ofassassinationof Archduke Franz Ferdinand , the result diplomatical crisis , and the shameful Caillauxverdictseemed to reflect a world spinning out of ascendance . The looming external threat overshadowed France ’s inscrutable political divisions , and there were no debauchery in the work class territorial dominion of the Gallic capital as many revere .
A King’s Last-Minute Plea
With both sides claiming to want peace and pointing fingers at each other , it ’s no surprise the British remained confused and ambivalent on July 31 . Despite his growing mistrust of Germany , Foreign Secretary Edward Grey was also decisive of Russia for mobilizing first , as he indicated in a conversation with the Gallic embassador , Paul Cambon , on the evening of July 31 : “ This , it would seem to me , would come down a crisis , and would make it appear that German militarization was being forced by Russia . ”
Above all , Grey was determined to look after British interests , and in a pregnant situation he was careful to delineate these as narrowly as possible . Chief among them was the concern that both side should respect the neutrality of Belgium , which , lying directly across the English Channel , was a base of British internal security . On the evening of July 31 , Grey sent annotation to both Germany and France , asking whether they would esteem Belgian disinterest . The Gallic government responded by midnight that France would maintain the treaty guaranteeing Belgian neutrality — but Germany was oddly mute .
Even at this late stage , following the German threat of war , Grey still hop-skip against hope that a peaceful solution was possible , lead to yet another desperate last - minute of arc peace attempt . In the early morn of August 1 , Grey , along with Prime Minister Asquith and First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill , woke King George V and asked him to send a personal wire to Tsar Nicholas II , which scan :
By the clip the wire was decoded and delivered to the Tsar on the afternoon of August 1 , it was already too late .
August 1: Chaos Across Europe
The cockcrow of August 1 ascertain Europe in chaos . In Germany , the government govern bank to hold back provide immediate payment withdrawals , but the Gallic government failed to take like measures in fourth dimension , leading to runs on banks across the country . Philip Gibbs , a British war letter writer , described one such incident in Paris :
The place in Brussels was n’t so tranquil , accord to Hugh Gibson , the young secretarial assistant of the American Embassy :
The imminent conflict work mayhem on the plans of tourists across the continent . Edith Wharton , who hap to be in Paris , remembered the strange atmosphere of August 1 :
Declarations of Neutrality, Italy Opts Out
With state of war imminent , Europe ’s little nations went running for covering fire , begin with Bulgaria . They declare neutrality on July 29 ( although the following daytime it accepted a huge loan from Germany , forecast its later intervention on the side of the Central Powers ) . The Netherlands declared its neutrality on July 30 , followed by Denmark and Norway on August 1 , while Switzerland mobilized to protect its own longstanding neutrality . Greece declare its neutrality on August 2 , and Romania followed suit of clothes on August 3 .
Among the Great Powers , besides Britain , only Italy remained undecided . While a penis of the justificative Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria - Hungary , Italy was actuallyhostileto her imagine friend Austria - Hungary , with Italian patriot coveting Austria ’s pagan Italian territories of Trentino and Trieste as the final , missing pieces of a united Italy . Italy also had a orphic non - aggression accord with France , and a close human relationship with Britain , which keep in line the Mediterranean and provided most of Italy ’s coal imports .
So it was hardly surprising when Italy ’s Council of Ministers vote for neutrality late on the evening of July 31 , announcing the news to Italian newspapers shortly after midnight . It seemed to storm to Germany and Austria - Hungary , who were victims of their own wishful thinking . As late as July 31 , German Chancellor Bethmann - Hollweg was asking Italy to join them in the coming warfare , and on August 1 the Austrian chief of the world-wide staff , Conrad , drop a line to his Italian counterpart Cadorna , asking how many Italian divisions they could count on during the war .
But Germany and Austria - Hungary now paid the price for Vienna ’s repeatedrefusalsto offering Italy suitable bonus , in the form of Trentino and Trieste , to take their side in a European war . In fact , within a yr Italy would fall in their enemies after Britain and France came up with their own attractive offer .
France Mobilizes
President Poincaré recalled , “ Joffre seem with the placid face of a calm , resolute man whose only concern is lest France , outstripped by German mobilization , the most speedy of all of them , might rapidly find herself in an irreparable state of inferiority . ” After explaining his reasons and admonish that Germany was already call up reservists and requisition horses , even before order mobilization , Messimy withdraw , “ There was no protest , no comment . ”
A few hours later , at 11 ante meridiem , Premier Viviani presented his perfectly uninformative answer to the German embassador , Schoen , while the French cabinet was further cheer by the good news that Italy would remain inert , freeing up Gallic power which would have otherwise been tied down guarding the frontier with Italy . Finally , around midday , the storage locker agreed to order militarisation , take effect at 4 p.m. that day .
recognition : Clasgallery
Germany Mobilizes, Declares War on Russia
Coincidentally , Germany and France declared mobilization within arcminute of each other ( Germany ’s clip zone is an hour ahead of France ) . War Minister Falkenhayn recalled :
reference : Telegraph
After the mobilization order was signed , embassador Pourtalès in St. Petersburg presented the German proclamation of war to Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Sazonov , who call up :
Ordinary Russians were less likable , and that night an angry mob looted and burned the German embassy in St. Petersburg . Sergei Kournakoff , a Russian horse police officer ( and future Soviet agent in the U.S. ) recollect the scene :
Back in Berlin on the eve of August 1 , Chancellor Bethmann - Hollweg encounter the opaque French response to the previous day ’s ultimatum and began delineate up a declaration of war against France . German scout troop were moving to occupy lowly , neutral Luxembourg , a critical rails hub for the encroachment of Belgium and northern France . But the day was to see one more bizarre turn of events — a net flip - flop by the mercurial German Kaiser , which fetch chief of the general staff Moltke to the peak of nervous collapse .
A Final Bid to Keep Britain Out
Germany was now savvy at husk in its exertion to keep Britain from intervening . The Germans get laid that Britain had made some kind of defensive commitment to France , although the terms remain secret , and they were also cognizant that , despite their best efforts to paint France and Russia as the aggressors , the encroachment of Belgium could easy trigger a hostile British response . Therefore , at this late stage the good — indeed , only — chance of keeping Britain out was to somehow get France to remain neutral as well .
This was obviously a long snap , give the Franco - Russian Alliance , but on August 1 , Berlin seize on a content from Ambassador Lichnowsky in London , report that one of Grey ’s subsidiary , William Tyrell , say a unexampled musical theme was being discussed in the console , to the gist “ that if we were not to set on France , England would remain neutral and guarantee the passivity of France … Tyrell urge on me to use my influence so that our troops should not go against the French frontier . He said everything depended on this . ”
In other lyric , according to Tyrell , Britain might somehow persuade France to vacate Russia , meaning Germany did n’t have to intrude on France , which in turn intend Britain could stay out of the state of war . It ’s not light exactly where this extremely improbable idea develop , and Lichnowsky should never have communicated it as a firm proposal , since Tyrell mentioned it in passing . But Kaiser Wilhelm II jumped at the whirl , short ordering Moltke to call off the encroachment of France and instead prepare to reassign all Germany ’s forces to concentrate exclusively on Russia .
This insane program line meant completely vacate the Schlieffen Plan and improvising the movements of millions of men , unnumberable cavalry and artillery pieces , and thousand of tons of tons of supplies across Germany to the Russian frontier . In other parole , it was completely impossible , and on hearing the freakish ordination , Moltke had a aflutter equipment failure : “ I think my heart and soul would break … I was absolutely break up and shed tear of desperation . When the telegram … was submitted to me , repeat the order … I slammed down the pen on the desk and said I would not sign . ”
In typical manner , this order would itself soon be reversed , as it became clear that Lichnowsky ’s report had been inaccurate . After Kaiser Wilhelm II telegraphed King George V about the supposed offer , the British Danaus plexippus politely replied , “ In result to your telegram just received I think there must be some misunderstanding as to a suggestion that passed in well-disposed conversation between Prince Lichnowsky and Sir Edward Grey this afternoon when they were discussing how real fighting between German and Gallic armies might be avoided . ” Britain was not in a place to guarantee French neutrality and the Kaiser order Moltke , now a quivering wreck , to go with the invasion of Belgium after all .
Meanwhile , the lunar time period of British public persuasion was already turning against Germany . Beginning on July 30 , First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill had been communicating with the leaders of the Unionist opposition , so - called because they bitingly opposed Irish independence , instead supporting the “ Union ” of Britain and Ireland . Just a week before the conservative Unionists had been battling the Liberal cabinet , which indorse Irish home formula , but now key figures including Bonar Law and Edward Carson let it be live that they were willing to put aside these internal disagreement for the time being and support British intervention on the side of France and Belgium .
The support of the Unionists gave the Liberal “ hawks , ” including Prime Minister Asquith , Foreign Secretary Grey , and Churchill himself , of the essence political leveraging over their anti - interventionist fellow in the big cabinet . With support from one of the chief opposition groups , they might be capable to reform a new cabinet without the anti - interventionists — which of course made the anti - interventionists more likely to reconsider their own stance . At last the way was readable for British intervention in the derive conflict .
See theprevious installmentorall entries .
